Controlling Urban Air Pollution Caused by Households

August 10, 2010 · 0 comments

Controlling Urban Air Pollution Caused by Households: Uncertainty, Prices, and Income, 2010.

Full-text: http://www2.um.edu.uy/dtrupkin/Urban%20air%20pollution.pdf

Carlos A. Chávez, Departamento de Economía, Universidad de Concepción.
John K. Stranlund, Department of Resource Economics, University of Massachusetts-Amherst
Walter Gómez, Departamento de Ingeniería Matemática, Universidad de la Frontera

We examine the optimal control of air pollution caused by households burning wood for heating and cooking in the developing world. Since the problem is one of controlling emissions from nonpoint sources, regulations are likely to be directed at household choices of wood consumption and combustion technologies. Moreover, these choices are subtractions from, or contributions to, the pure public good of air quality. Consequently, the efficient policy design is not independent of the distribution of household income.

Since it is unrealistic to assume that environmental authorities can make lump sum income transfers part of control policies, efficient control of air pollution caused by wood consumption entails a higher tax on wood consumption and a higher subsidy for more efficient combustion technologies for higher income households. Among other difficulties, implementing a policy to promote the adoption of cleaner combustion technologies must overcome the seemingly paradoxical result that efficient control calls for higher technology subsidies for higher income households.

Malta to participate in study on indoor air pollution in schools

August 10, 2010 · 1 comment

Malta will be one of the 22 European countries participating in an EU-funded study on indoor pollution in schools, which will be conducted by physicians Peter Fsadni and Stephen Montefort, who is a member of the steering committee of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (Isaac).

According to an assessment of the Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks (SCHER) – one of three independent non-food scientific committees that advise the European Commission on matters of consumer safety, public health and the environment – information is lacking on possible health effects (such as cancer or reproductive effects) of long-term exposure to many chemicals present in indoor air.

Indoor exposure to air pollutants may occur in both private and public indoor environments such as homes, offices, schools and transport systems.

Some indoor air pollutants come from the outside, but most are released inside the building, for example when cleaning or when burning fuel for cooking and heating. Furniture and construction materials can also emit pollutants. Dampness and lack of ventilation may further increase indoor air pollution.

Because indoor air can contain a mixture of many different pollutants, it is very difficult to assess the associated risks to health. Moreover, there is no such thing as a “typical indoor environment”.

The assessment published by SCHER considers how health risks of indoor air pollutants are currently evaluated and how they should be assessed in the future, taking into account simultaneous exposure to multiple pollutants and particularly vulnerable groups of population such as children, pregnant women and elderly people.

The data available for risk assessment of indoor air pollution is scarce and often insufficient. Information is available on the concentrations in indoor air of some well-known pollutants but is lacking for others whose effects are unclear. Measurements of outdoor air quality cannot be extrapolated to predict the concentrations in buildings.

Monitoring of indicators other than concentrations may be helpful, for instance ventilation rates, general cleanliness, and signs of dampness. The development of health-based guideline values is recommended for key pollutants.

Research is needed to identify the main sources of indoor pollutants, including in damp and water-damaged buildings. In addition, it is necessary to investigate how people are exposed to pollutants in indoor air and how the exposure levels could be measured or estimated using computer models.

There is a need for research on the health effects of mixtures of pollutants and of less well known indoor air pollutants such as microbes.

The SCHER assessment had said that the contribution of indoor air pollutants to childhood respiratory diseases, as well as the exposure-response relationships, especially in vulnerable groups, should also be investigated further.

Factors that determine indoor air quality

• Radon, a gas that occurs naturally in soil and rock in some regions and that can get inside buildings by diffusing through the soil. Radon occurs naturally in parts of Europe. It can get inside buildings and may lead to lung cancer;

• suspended particles in the air can cause harmful effects on health, particularly on the respiratory system, while microbes, such as moulds and viruses, can contribute to the

development of asthma and allergies.

• pets and pests such as dust mites, cockroaches, and mice, are important indoor sources of allergens, and low humidity causes eye irritation, dryness of the skin and the nose, and rashes;

• high humidity fosters the growth of moulds and dust mites;

• and insufficient ventilation is one of the most important factors in poor indoor air quality and may affect health and work performance. Indoor temperatures that are too high or too low are unpleasant and can be unhealthy.

http://www.independent.com.mt/news.asp?newsitemid=109270

Options for Energy Efficiency in India and Barriers to Their Adoption

August 4, 2010 · 0 comments

Options for Energy Efficiency in India and Barriers to Their Adoption: A Scoping Study, 2010.

Full-text: http://www.rff.org/RFF/Documents/RFF-DP-10-20.pdf

Soma Bhattacharya and Maureen L. Cropper. Resources for the Future.

We review the economics literature on energy efficiency in India, as a guide for further research in the area. The empirical literature has focused on four questions: How does energy efficiency in India compare with energy efficiency in other countries? What would be the energy savings (and cost savings) from adopting certain energy-efficient technologies? Why are these technologies being—or not being—adopted? What policies should be implemented to encourage their adoption?  Most of the literature focuses on answers to the first two questions. Studies are needed that quantify factors affecting the rate of diffusion of energy-efficient technologies and rigorously evaluate reforms implemented by the Government of India, beginning in the 1990s, that could affect energy efficiency.

Urbanisation and the Choice of Fuel Wood as a Source of Energy

August 4, 2010 · 0 comments

J Hum Ecol, 31(1): 19-26 (2010)

Urbanisation and the Choice of Fuel Wood as a Source of Energy in Nigeria

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Y.Y. Babanyara* and U. F. Saleh. Urban and Regional Planning Programme; Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, P.M. B 0248, Bauchi, Nigeria, E-mail: yybabanyara@yahoo.com; yybabanyara@gmail.com

This paper discusses the problem of urbanization and fuel wood consumption in Nigeria and the main objective is to examine the causes and effects of degradation of the environment. Between 1990 and 2000, Nigeria lost an average of 409,700 hectares of forest, equal to an average annual deforestation rate of 2.38%. Additionally, between 2000 and 2005, Nigeria lost 35.7% of its forest cover, or around 6,145,000 hectares.

The paper found that the factors causing fuel wood demand in urban areas include, Rural-urban migration, Urbanization, Poverty, Hikes in prices of kerosene and cooking gas amongst others. The paper relied mainly on secondary information from both empirical and non-empirical researches. Furthermore, the consequences of indiscriminate felling of trees such as Deforestation, Desertification, Erosion and Bio-diversity loss were highlighted. The Prospects of harnessing other renewable sources of energy in Nigeria as a measure to reduce the rate of consumption of fuel wood is recommended.

Household Energy and Biomass Use and Health Burden of Indoor Air Pollution in Pakistan

August 4, 2010 · 0 comments

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7, 2940-2952

Situational Analysis of Household Energy and Biomass Use and Associated Health Burden of Indoor Air Pollution and Mitigation Efforts in Pakistan

Fulltext: http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/7/2940/pdf

Zafar Fatmi; et al.

Biomass fuel burning leads to high levels of suspended particulate matter and hazardous chemicals in the indoor environment in countries where it is in common use, contributing significantly to indoor air pollution (IAP). A situational analysis of household energy and biomass use and associated health effects of IAP was conducted by reviewing published and un-published literature about the situation in Pakistan. In addition to attempt to quantify the burden of ill health due to IAP, this paper also appraises the mitigation measures undertaken to avert the problem in Pakistan.

Unfortunately, IAP is still not a recognized environmental hazard in Pakistan and there are no policies and standards to control it at the household level. Only a few original studies related to health effects of IAP have been conducted, mainly on women’s health and birth outcome, and only a few governmental, non-governmental and academic institutions are working to improve the IAP situation by introducing improved stoves and renewable energy technology at a small scale. Control of IAP health hazards in Pakistan requires an initial meeting of the stakeholders to define a policy and an action agenda. Simultaneously, studies gathering evidence of impact of intervention through available technologies such as improved stoves would have favorable impact on the health, especially of women and children in Pakistan.

Impact of solar photovoltaic lighting on indoor air smoke in Ghana

August 4, 2010 · 0 comments

Impact of solar photovoltaic lighting on indoor air smoke in off-grid rural Ghana, 2010.

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Braimah, Imoro; Obeng, George Y.; Akuffo, F.O.; Mensah, E; Hans-Dieter, Evers

Nearly 75 % of the rural households in Ghana depend on kerosene lanterns as the main source of lighting after sunset. However, concerns are being expressed on indoor air smoke and heat as well as fire hazards associated with the use of kerosene lanterns. Largely as a result of socio-eco- nomic and environmental benefits, public solar photovoltaic (PV) electrification projects have been implemented to provide alternative lighting in off-grid communities in Ghana.

The purpose of this paper was to assess the impacts of solar PV lighting on indoor air smoke in rural households. Using the with/without comparison method, 209 solar-electrified and non-electrified households were surveyed to assess impacts. The study results indicated that solar PV lighting is likely to reduce the proportion of household members being affected by indoor smoke from kerosene lanterns by 50 %. Furthermore, solar PV lighting is likely to reduce the proportion of household members who get blackened nostrils from soot associated with kerosene lanterns by nearly a third.

This paper maintains that, though the effects identified by this study may be short-term, further research is needed to investigate both the medium- and long-term effects on human health. Given the low income levels of the rural poor and the costs involved in maintaining PV systems, effective policies and incentives for low-income earners are fundamental steps toward improvement in quality of life and widening of access.

USAID RFA – Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Program (EEREP)

August 3, 2010 · 0 comments

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is seeking applications for Assistance Agreements for its Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Program (EEREP). USAID anticipates awarding two EEREP Leader with Associate Cooperative Agreements, each of 5 years duration. The LWAs will be under two themes:

  • Increasing Energy Efficiency, which will focus on increasing energy efficiency to reduce GHG emissions in developing country economies and
  • Increasing Adoption of Renewable Energy, which seeks to assist developing countries with promoting and establishing an expanded supply of renewable energy systems.

Subject to the availability of funds, approximately $2,500,000 will be available for each EEREP LWA Leader Award. Associate Awards totaling approximately $5,000,000 are expected for each Leader Award but actual activity funding will depend on field demand.

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Solar Cooking in Africa – A Remarkable Technology Transfer

August 2, 2010 · 0 comments

[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZWIpKRuur0&hl=en_US&fs=1]

Bayesian modelling of household solid fuel use

August 2, 2010 · 0 comments

Environ Res. 2010 Jul 22.

Bayesian modelling of household solid fuel use: Insights towards designing effective interventions to promote fuel switching in Africa.

Rehfuess EA, Briggs DJ, Joffe M, Best N. Department of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Imperial College London, UK.

Indoor air pollution from solid fuel use is a significant risk factor for acute lower respiratory infections among children in sub-Saharan Africa. Interventions that promote a switch to modern fuels hold a large health promise, but their effective design and implementation require an understanding of the web of upstream and proximal determinants of household fuel use. Using Demographic and Health Survey data for Benin, Kenya and Ethiopia together with Bayesian hierarchical and spatial modelling, this paper quantifies the impact of household-level factors on cooking fuel choice, assesses variation between communities and districts and discusses the likely nature of contextual effects.

Household- and area-level characteristics appear to interact as determinants of cooking fuel choice. In all three countries, wealth and the educational attainment of women and men emerge as important; the nature of area-level factors varies between countries. In Benin, a two-level model with spatial community random effects best explains the data, pointing to an environmental explanation. In Ethiopia and Kenya, a three-level model with unstructured community and district random effects is selected, implying relatively autonomous economic and social areas.

Area-level heterogeneity, indicated by large median odds ratios, appears to be responsible for a greater share of variation in the data than household-level factors. This may be an indication that fuel choice is to a considerable extent supply-driven rather than demand-driven. Consequently, interventions to promote fuel switching will carefully need to assess supply-side limitations and devise appropriate policy and programmatic approaches to overcome them.

To our knowledge, this paper represents the first attempt to model the determinants of solid fuel use, highlighting socio-economic differences between households and, notably, the dramatic influence of contextual effects. It illustrates the potential that multilevel and spatial modelling approaches hold for understanding determinants of major public health problems in the developing world.

Cutting Black Carbon Soot Could Save Arctic

August 2, 2010 · 0 comments

Aug 2, 2010 – Reducing emissions of black carbon, the dark component of soot, could be the best–and perhaps only–way to save the Arctic from warmer temperatures that are melting its snow and ice, according to a study published in the Journal of Geophysical Research.

Dr. Mark Jacobson of Stanford University studied the short-term effects of reducing black carbon and other greenhouse gases, including CO2 and methane, over a 15-year period of time, with black carbon reductions appearing to be the fastest way to avoid further Arctic ice loss and warming.

Jacobson’s study found that aggressive reductions in black carbon emissions produced from both the burning of fossil fuels and burning of biomass, could lower temperatures in the Arctic by 1.7?C within the next 15 years. The Arctic has warmed at least 2.5?C over the past century–a reduction of this magnitude could help slow ice loss and potentially save it from reaching a tipping point where it would be impossible to recover its snow and ice cover.

“The Arctic is a critical defense shield for the Earth’s climate system. Its vast expanse of ice and snow is reflecting significant incoming heat back into space. We cannot afford to lose the Arctic,” said Durwood Zaelke, President of the Institute for Governance & Sustainable Development. “Targeting black carbon with aggressive, fast action today is the most important strategy for saving the Arctic.”

Black carbon has a particularly negative impact on the Arctic and other regions with snow and ice, such as the Tibetan Plateau in Asia. After a few days or weeks, the black carbon particles are washed out of the atmosphere and deposited on the ground below, darkening the reflective white surface and leading to greater absorption of solar radiation. This leads to more melting and larger pools of dark water, which then absorb more heat, continuing a dangerous feedback cycle.

Besides its damaging impact on the Arctic, black carbon emissions have a significant effect on the overall warming of the earth. After studying the different climate forcers’ impacts on Arctic temperatures, as well as clouds and precipitation, Jacobson was able to conclude that black carbon may be the second largest contributor to warming after CO2, echoing the conclusion by several other scientists, including Dr. V. Ramanathan at the Scripps Institution at the University of California, San Diego and Dr. Drew Shindell at NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

“On top of all this, black carbon is a killer,” added Zaelke. “Nearly a million and a half people die every year from breathing air polluted by black carbon and contracting deadly respiratory diseases. Black carbon is bad news for development, which depends on a healthy population, and we need to get rid of it now.”

Fortunately, as Jacobson notes in his paper, fairly simple technologies such as diesel particulate filters for vehicles and more efficient cookstoves, are available now and can effectively reduce black carbon emissions.

The full study is available at the link below.

http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/PDF%20files/BCClimRespJGR0710.pdf

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